Cantiknyer!!!!
Written on 6:35 AM by Amilrash
6 days ago
Roti Sedap
Written on 3:44 AM by Amilrash
Kepada sesiapa nak beli roti ni bolehlah contak saya k. Nampak jer roti ni cam seram.. tp hakikatnyer sedap berkrim tau hehehe:)
Renungkan lah wahai manusia....
Written on 3:14 AM by Amilrash
Ada seorang manusia yang bertemu dengan setan di waktu subuh.
Entah bagaimana awalnya, akhirnya mereka berdua sepakat mengikat
tali persahabatan. Ketika waktu subuh berakhir dan orang itu tidak mengerjakan solat, maka setan pun sambil tersenyum bergumam, "Orang ini memang boleh menjadi sahabatku..!"
Begitu juga ketika waktu Zuhur orang ini tidak mengerjakan solat,
setan tersenyum lebar sambil membatin, " Rupanya inilah bakal teman
sejatiku di akhirat nanti..!"
Ketika waktu ashar hampir habis tetapi temannya itu dilihatnya masih
juga asik dengan kegiatannya, setan mulai terdiam...... Kemudian
ketika datang waktunya magrib, temannya itu ternyata tidak shalat juga, maka setan nampak mulai gelisah, senyumnya sudah berubah menjadi kecut. Dari wajahnya nampak bahwa ia seolah-olah sedang mengingat-ngingat sesuatu.
Dan akhirnya ketika dilihatnya sahabatnya itu tidak juga mengerjakan
shalat Isya, maka setan itu sangat panik.
Ia rupanya tidak bisa menahan diri lagi, dihampirinya sahabatnya manusianya itu sambil berkata dengan penuh ketakutan, "Wahai
sobat, aku terpaksa memutuskan persahabatan kita !"
Dengan keheranan manusia ini bertanya, "Kenapa engkau ingkar janji
bukankah baru tadi pagi kita berjanji akan menjadi sahabat ?". "Aku takut!", jawab setan dengan suara gemetar. "Nenek moyangku saja yang dulu hanya sekali membangkang pada perintah-Nya, iaitu ketika menolak
disuruh sujud pada "Adam", telah dilaknat-Nya; apalagi engkau yang
hari ini saja kusaksikan telah lima kali membangkang untuk bersujud
pada-Nya (Sujud pada Allah). Tidak terbayangkan olehku bagaimana
besarnya murka Allah kepadamu!", kata setan sambil beredar pergi.
:badgrin: :badgrin:
Brakes
Written on 2:07 AM by Amilrash
Brakes - Everything you Need to Know About Brake Pads, Rotors and Brake Lines
Your vehicle carries some pretty valuable cargo. Let's talk about a major safety aspect of your car, the braking system. The braking system on most people's cars goes unnoticed since it is "out of sight, out of mind." That is, until a problem crops up, which is usually in the form of the proverbial grinding when you push the brake pedal. What are the most common signs of brake failure?
- Poor braking performance, (hard to stop the car)
- Squealing or grinding noises during braking
- Pulling to one side, or "grabbing"
- Loss of brake pedal
- Pulsation of the brake pedal during braking
- Clicking noises during braking
- Excessive drag during acceleration ("Anchors Away" Syndrome)
- Lit ABS light for the antilock brakes
Let's take a look at these warning signs in more detail.
Poor braking performance can occur for a few reasons:
1. Crystallized brake pads and/or shoes: The brakes have become hardened from heat and are no longer effective at grabbing and stopping the rotation of the brake drum or rotor. This condition usually occurs after the brakes have been overused, either because of excessive panic stops or "riding of the brake." The braking material must be soft enough to wear and grab hold of the drum or rotor to stop the car. Excessive overheating hardens the braking material and consequently, the brakes become ineffective.
2. Oil or grease soaked brakes can affect braking. Oil from the rear differential or front transaxle can get on the brakes from an oil seal that might have failed. Grease from a failed rubber boot on a front end component (such as a ball joint or tie rod) can find its way onto the brakes and cause this symptom as well.
3. Loss of power assist from the power brake booster is another cause of poor braking performance. It can occur due to a loss of engine vacuum, or deterioration of the vacuum brake booster diaphragm.
4. "Hot Spots" on the brake drums or rotors are hardened spots in the metal makeup of the drum or rotor that form from excessive overheating of the brakes. They resist the natural wear of the friction material (brake pads and shoes) that must take place during the braking process, consequently loss of braking power takes place. The pads and shoes have nothing to grip.
Squealing or grinding noises coming from the brakes: This is usually an indication of worn or glazed brake pads. The squealing noise comes from wear indicators, which come in contact with the brake rotor when the brake pads are worn to the point of needing replacement. This design "tells" you that it's time to check the brakes. Unfortunately, most people wait until they hear the grinding, which means that the brakes have ground through the wear indicators and into the rotors. If you hear squealing, get your brakes checked! Waiting for the grinding noise will cost you money! There are no wear indicators on the rear brakes. Have them checked every six months or when you have the tires rotated. NOT when you hear the grinding! Procrastination has financial consequences.
Pulling or Grabbing to One Side: This can happen for a number of reasons. Pulling can occur from maladjustment of the brakes, a frozen brake, brake fluid leakage, frozen emergency brake cables, or oil/grease leakage on the brake shoes or pads.
Loss of Brake Pedal: This condition is usually a result of brake fluid leakage due to failure of a brake hose or a rusted metal brake line, a worn wheel cylinder or brake caliper, or a worn master cylinder. A simple "once over" of the system will reveal what's going on.
Pulsation of the Brake Pedal: The cause of this condition is simply heat and wear. Heat and mechanical wear thin out the brake rotor or drum which causes warping. This warping translates into a pulsation (up and down motion) of the brake pedal while applying the brakes. In this case, re-machining or replacement is the answer. Make sure you have the brakes checked for wear if they are pulsating, because they are usually worn beyond their serviceable life when they get to this point and replacement would be in order.
Clicking Noises During Braking: This has been a problem ever since disc brakes came on the scene. The disc brake pads are held in place by pressure from the caliper against the brake rotor. It's somewhat of a loose fit. The factory installs "anti-rattle" devices to stop movement of the brake pads, which will stop the clicking noise. These devices are made of spring steel. Over time they become brittle and break, allowing the brake pad to ride loosely in its seat, causing rattling and/or clicking during braking.
Excessive Drag During Acceleration: Ever feel like someone "threw the anchor out" during acceleration? Maybe it's because the emergency brake cables are frozen due to rust buildup and are not releasing. A simple way to avoid this is to use your emergency brake! Remember this very simple rule ... "If you don't use it, you loose it!"
Lit ABS Light: A plethora of cars with antilock brakes experience a lit ABS light. In this case, have the wiring harnesses and electrical plugs leading to the wheel speed sensors checked for wear and corrosion. These electrical components are subjected to environmental conditions. Consequently, they suffer wear from exposure and might need replacement or repair.
There you have it! Check your brakes every six months to avoid unpleasant surprises. High dollar brake work can be "head off at the pass" simply by keeping a watchful eye on your brakes.
'Til next time ... Keep Rollin'
Lawak petang.. :)
Written on 12:21 AM by Amilrash
Murid : Selamat pagi, cikgu.
Cikgu :
(Menengking) Mengapa selamat pagi sahaja? Petang dan malam awak doakan saya tak selamat?
Murid : Selamat pagi, petang dan malam cikgu!
Cikgu : Panjang sangat! Tak pernah dibuat oleh orang! Kata selamat
sejahtera! Senang dan penuh bermakna.Lagipun ucapan ini meliputi
semua masa dan keadaan.
Murid : Selamat sejahtera cikgu!
Cikgu : Sama-sama,duduk!Dengar sini baik-baik.Hari ini cikgu nak uji kamu semua tentang perkataan berlawan. Bila cikgu sebutkan perkataannya,kamu semua mesti menjawab dengan cepat, lawan bagi
perkataan-perkataan itu, faham?
Murid : Faham,cikgu!
Cikgu : Saya tak mahu ada apa-apa gangguan.
Murid : (senyap)
Cikgu : Pandai!
Murid : kurang bijak!
Cikgu : Tinggi!
Murid : Rendah!
Cikgu : Jauh!
Murid : Dekat!
Cikgu : Keadilan!
Murid : UMNO!
Cikgu : Salah!
Murid : Betul!
Cikgu : kurang bijak!
Murid : Pandai!
Cikgu : Bukan!
Murid : Ya!
Cikgu : Oh Tuhan!
Murid : Oh Hamba!
Cikgu : Dengar ini!
Murid : Dengar itu!
Cikgu : Diam!
Murid : Bising!
Cikgu : Itu bukan pertanyaan,kurang bijak!
Murid : Ini ialah jawapan, pandai!
Cikgu : Mati aku!
Murid : Hidup kami!
Cikgu : Rotan baru tau!
Murid : Akar lama tak tau!
Cikgu : Malas aku ajar kamu!
Murid : Rajin kami belajar cikgu!
Cikgu : Kamu gila!
Murid : Kami siuman!
Cikgu : Cukup!
Cukup!
Zionis
Written on 7:06 PM by Amilrash
:-((((
khaibar khaibar ya yahud.....
khaibar khaibar ya yahud.....
Antara gambar2 yang menyemarakkan kemarahan orang islam!! Israel memang kejam! Sama2 lah kita doakan kesejahteraan rakyat islam Palestin. Doakan juga kemusnahan Israel!! Allahuakbar!!!
Why You Need Insurance
Written on 6:42 PM by Amilrash
Why You Need It
Cars are expensive, and car accidents are really expensive. In addition to car damage, there are also medical bills to consider. When thinking about the cost of a collision, you need to keep in mind that a car accident may involve more than one car -- that can easily double the cost of the damage. And, if each car has multiple passengers and they all get injured, you see how collision costs add up.
Insurance helps you cover those costs. Basically, you pay for an insurance policy, which is cheaper than the costs you'd likely incur because of an accident. Then, if you have an accident, the policy covers some of the costs associated with it. What your insurance policy covers depends on the type of coverage you buy.
Types of Coverage
The type of coverage you get depends on the laws in your state (most states have some required minimum auto insurance laws), the value of your car, and how much of your own money you're willing to spend if you get into an accident.
* Collision coverage is pretty basic: it pays for damages to your car if you hit something.
* Liability coverage is required by most states. It covers property damage and injuries to others caused by your car. So, if you drive through your neighbor's fence, collision coverage covers the damage to your car and liability coverage covers the damage to the fence. Liability coverage is what you need if you're in an accident and it's your fault.
* Medical coverage covers medical expenses that are the result of an accident. If you broke your wrist while driving through your neighbor's fence, this coverage would take care of it.
* Comprehensive coverage covers damage to your car that's not the result of a collision. This is the kind of coverage you'd want if a tree fell on your car, or if it were damaged in a flood.
* Personal Injury Protection is very similar to medical coverage. The difference is that medical coverage covers everyone injured in an accident, while Personal Injury Protection only covers you. It's required coverage in many states; medical coverage tends to be optional.
* Uninsured motorist coverage takes car of damage to your car if it is hit by a driver who doesn't have liability insurance.
* Underinsured motorist coverage will pay for damages to your car if it's hit by someone who doesn't have enough insurance to pay for the damage. For example, if your car gets hit by someone with only $2,000 worth of liability coverage and there's $3,000 worth of damage to your car, underinsured motorist coverage pays the difference.
* Rental reimbursement will pay for you to rent a car while yours is in the shop due to an accident.
Who Pays For What?
What's New Car Insurance?
When you buy a new car, you should consider getting new car insurance. If a car is totaled in an accident, most insurance companies will only pay what the car is worth, which tends to be much less than what you paid for the car new, leaving you out a lot of cash. New car insurance pays for the full value of the car new.
In an accident, the type of coverage that comes into play depends on who is at fault. The person who causes the accident is the one whose insurance pays for all the damages. So, if you just drive through your neighbor's fence, your insurance will pay -- and as a result, your insurance rates will go up. However, if you drive through your neighbor's fence because someone rear-ended you and sent your car flying, the insurance of the person who hit you would pay for all the damages.
What Do You Need?
The type of coverage you get depends the laws in your state (most states have some required minimum auto insurance laws), the value of your car, and how much of your own money you're willing to spend if you get into an accident.
You should always get enough insurance to cover the value of your car -- especially if you still owe money on it. Otherwise, the car could be totaled and you'd still be making payments on it. That means that if you have an expensive car, you should get a lot of coverage. If it's a cheap car, you can buy less. You also should take into account how much money you have in savings. If you have enough money to handle unexpected medical expenses, lost work days and renting a car, you can probably get less coverage.
Also look at other insurance you have. Your medical insurance may cover injuries received in a car accident. If that's the case, you can decrease the medical coverage on your car insurance. Likewise, your homeowners or renters insurance may cover damage to your car.
What Should You Pay?
What you pay for car insurance is a made up by a number of complex factors. Basically, your insurance rates are based on how much coverage you want and how likely the insurance company thinks it is that you'll have an accident. As a result, safe and experienced drivers pay less for insurance than 16-year-olds with speeding tickets. Also, how expensive your car is and the type of car it is will determine your insurance rates. A 20-year-old station wagon is a lot cheaper to insure than a brand new sports car, because that 20-year-old wagon is cheaper to fix and, according to insurance companies, less likely to be in an accident. Other factors, such as where you live and how often you drive, will also play a role in determining your costs.
Bring Your Costs Down
There a re a lot of ways you can bring your insurance costs down. One is by having a larger deductible. A deductible is part of your insurance policy that you agree to pay. For example, if you have a $1,000 deductible and are in an accident that causes $2,000 worth of damage, you'd pay $1,000 and your insurance would pay $1,000. A large deductible will bring down your insurance costs, but it will mean that in some accidents, your insurance won't pay a dime.
If the damage to your car is less than the cost of your deductible, you'll have to pay it all. When shopping for coverage, don't get a deductible that's so large you can't pay it, and always keep an amount equal to your deductible in your savings account. You'll never know when you may need it.
You can also bring down your car insurance costs by lessening the odds that you'll be in an accident. See if your insurance company will lower your rate if you take a defensive driving course. If you're still in school, see if they offer good-student discounts. Also, if you drive less, you'll be less likely to be in an accident. If your car's parked on campus during the week, don't pay for insurance that assumes you're driving it daily. If you do drive daily, look for ways to decrease your time behind the wheel -- take the bus, walk, and bum rides with friends, then let your insurance company know you're driving less so they can adjust your rate.
Place Your Bets
In the end, car insurance is a bet. You pay a monthly fee to an insurance company. They're betting that you won't get into an accident. You're hoping that you won't, but betting that you will. If you "win," the insurance company will pay your accident costs. If you're not in an accident, the insurance company wins because they get to keep your money. Losing this bet isn't bad, though. You won't have to deal with being in an accident, and the longer you lose the bet by not getting into a wreck, the less you'll have to pay the insurance company. But, the day you're in an accident, you'll be glad you're covered.
Why You Need Insurance
Written on 6:42 PM by Amilrash
Why You Need It
Cars are expensive, and car accidents are really expensive. In addition to car damage, there are also medical bills to consider. When thinking about the cost of a collision, you need to keep in mind that a car accident may involve more than one car -- that can easily double the cost of the damage. And, if each car has multiple passengers and they all get injured, you see how collision costs add up.
Insurance helps you cover those costs. Basically, you pay for an insurance policy, which is cheaper than the costs you'd likely incur because of an accident. Then, if you have an accident, the policy covers some of the costs associated with it. What your insurance policy covers depends on the type of coverage you buy.
Types of Coverage
The type of coverage you get depends on the laws in your state (most states have some required minimum auto insurance laws), the value of your car, and how much of your own money you're willing to spend if you get into an accident.
* Collision coverage is pretty basic: it pays for damages to your car if you hit something.
* Liability coverage is required by most states. It covers property damage and injuries to others caused by your car. So, if you drive through your neighbor's fence, collision coverage covers the damage to your car and liability coverage covers the damage to the fence. Liability coverage is what you need if you're in an accident and it's your fault.
* Medical coverage covers medical expenses that are the result of an accident. If you broke your wrist while driving through your neighbor's fence, this coverage would take care of it.
* Comprehensive coverage covers damage to your car that's not the result of a collision. This is the kind of coverage you'd want if a tree fell on your car, or if it were damaged in a flood.
* Personal Injury Protection is very similar to medical coverage. The difference is that medical coverage covers everyone injured in an accident, while Personal Injury Protection only covers you. It's required coverage in many states; medical coverage tends to be optional.
* Uninsured motorist coverage takes car of damage to your car if it is hit by a driver who doesn't have liability insurance.
* Underinsured motorist coverage will pay for damages to your car if it's hit by someone who doesn't have enough insurance to pay for the damage. For example, if your car gets hit by someone with only $2,000 worth of liability coverage and there's $3,000 worth of damage to your car, underinsured motorist coverage pays the difference.
* Rental reimbursement will pay for you to rent a car while yours is in the shop due to an accident.
Who Pays For What?
What's New Car Insurance?
When you buy a new car, you should consider getting new car insurance. If a car is totaled in an accident, most insurance companies will only pay what the car is worth, which tends to be much less than what you paid for the car new, leaving you out a lot of cash. New car insurance pays for the full value of the car new.
In an accident, the type of coverage that comes into play depends on who is at fault. The person who causes the accident is the one whose insurance pays for all the damages. So, if you just drive through your neighbor's fence, your insurance will pay -- and as a result, your insurance rates will go up. However, if you drive through your neighbor's fence because someone rear-ended you and sent your car flying, the insurance of the person who hit you would pay for all the damages.
What Do You Need?
The type of coverage you get depends the laws in your state (most states have some required minimum auto insurance laws), the value of your car, and how much of your own money you're willing to spend if you get into an accident.
You should always get enough insurance to cover the value of your car -- especially if you still owe money on it. Otherwise, the car could be totaled and you'd still be making payments on it. That means that if you have an expensive car, you should get a lot of coverage. If it's a cheap car, you can buy less. You also should take into account how much money you have in savings. If you have enough money to handle unexpected medical expenses, lost work days and renting a car, you can probably get less coverage.
Also look at other insurance you have. Your medical insurance may cover injuries received in a car accident. If that's the case, you can decrease the medical coverage on your car insurance. Likewise, your homeowners or renters insurance may cover damage to your car.
What Should You Pay?
What you pay for car insurance is a made up by a number of complex factors. Basically, your insurance rates are based on how much coverage you want and how likely the insurance company thinks it is that you'll have an accident. As a result, safe and experienced drivers pay less for insurance than 16-year-olds with speeding tickets. Also, how expensive your car is and the type of car it is will determine your insurance rates. A 20-year-old station wagon is a lot cheaper to insure than a brand new sports car, because that 20-year-old wagon is cheaper to fix and, according to insurance companies, less likely to be in an accident. Other factors, such as where you live and how often you drive, will also play a role in determining your costs.
Bring Your Costs Down
There a re a lot of ways you can bring your insurance costs down. One is by having a larger deductible. A deductible is part of your insurance policy that you agree to pay. For example, if you have a $1,000 deductible and are in an accident that causes $2,000 worth of damage, you'd pay $1,000 and your insurance would pay $1,000. A large deductible will bring down your insurance costs, but it will mean that in some accidents, your insurance won't pay a dime.
If the damage to your car is less than the cost of your deductible, you'll have to pay it all. When shopping for coverage, don't get a deductible that's so large you can't pay it, and always keep an amount equal to your deductible in your savings account. You'll never know when you may need it.
You can also bring down your car insurance costs by lessening the odds that you'll be in an accident. See if your insurance company will lower your rate if you take a defensive driving course. If you're still in school, see if they offer good-student discounts. Also, if you drive less, you'll be less likely to be in an accident. If your car's parked on campus during the week, don't pay for insurance that assumes you're driving it daily. If you do drive daily, look for ways to decrease your time behind the wheel -- take the bus, walk, and bum rides with friends, then let your insurance company know you're driving less so they can adjust your rate.
Place Your Bets
In the end, car insurance is a bet. You pay a monthly fee to an insurance company. They're betting that you won't get into an accident. You're hoping that you won't, but betting that you will. If you "win," the insurance company will pay your accident costs. If you're not in an accident, the insurance company wins because they get to keep your money. Losing this bet isn't bad, though. You won't have to deal with being in an accident, and the longer you lose the bet by not getting into a wreck, the less you'll have to pay the insurance company. But, the day you're in an accident, you'll be glad you're covered.
History About Car
Written on 6:39 PM by Amilrash
History
Main article: History of the automobile
Although Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in about 1769 by adapting an existing horse-drawn vehicle, this claim is disputed by some, who doubt Cugnot's three-wheeler ever ran or was stable. Others claim Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built the first steam-powered vehicle around 1672 which was of small scale and designed as a toy for the Chinese Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger, but quite possibly, was the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile').[5][6] What is not in doubt is that Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive in 1801, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle although it was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and would have been of little practical use.
In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearings; however, it was not developed further.[7]
François Isaac de Rivaz, a Swiss inventor, designed the first internal combustion engine, in 1806, which was fueled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen and used it to develop the world's first vehicle, albeit rudimentary, to be powered by such an engine. The design was not very successful, as was the case with others such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by clumsy internal combustion engines.[8]
In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile that was powered by electricity. This was at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.[9]
Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern automobile.[8]
An automobile powered by his own four-stroke cycle gasoline engine was built in Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885 and granted a patent in January of the following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883. It was an integral design, without the adaptation of other existing components and including several new technological elements to create a new concept. This is what made it worthy of a patent. He began to sell his production vehicles in 1888.
Karl Benz
A photograph of the original Benz Patent Motorwagen, first built in 1885 and awarded the patent for the concept
In 1879 Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle.
His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 and he was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on January 29, 1886. Benz began promotion of the vehicle on July 3, 1886 and approximately 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early automobiles, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.
In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called a boxermotor in German. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company.
Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (Daimler Motor Company, DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890 and under the brand name, Daimler, sold their first automobile in 1892, which was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, that they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after falling out with their backers. Benz and the Maybach and Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together because by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG.
Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes, that was placed in a specially-ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG automobile was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers.
Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands.
On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles Mercedes Benz as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929 and at times, his two sons participated in the management of the company as well.
In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines and so laid the foundation of the automobile industry in France.
The first design for an American automobile with a gasoline internal combustion engine was drawn in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent for an automobile in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built and proved to work (a requirement for a patent). After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application, on November 5, 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent (U.S. Patent 549,160 ) for a two-stroke automobile engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of automobiles in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.
In Britain there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[10] Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894[11] followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895 but these were both one-offs.[11] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Motor Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896 after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first automobiles in 1897 and they bore the name Daimler.[11]
In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897 he built the first Diesel Engine.[8] Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.
Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.
Production
Ransom E. Olds.
The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory in 1902. This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1914.
As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing production by seven to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[12] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[12] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[12]
Portrait of Henry Ford (ca. 1919)
Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.[12]
Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.
Ford Model T, 1927, regarded as the first affordable American automobile
Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved.
Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate drivetrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[12]
In Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practise of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra had gone under. Citroen did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete.[12] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.[12]
See also: Automotive industry
Fuel and propulsion technologies
Auto rickshaws in New Delhi run on Compressed Natural Gas
See also: Alternative fuel vehicle
Most automobiles in use today are propelled by gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel internal combustion engines, which are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming.[13] Increasing costs of oil-based fuels, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles, and electric and hydrogen vehicles which do not release pollution into the air.
Petroleum fuels
Main article: Petroleum fuel engine
Diesel
Main article: Diesel engine
Diesel-engined cars have long been popular in Europe with the first models being introduced in the 1930s by Mercedes Benz and Citroen. The main benefit of diesel engines is a 50% fuel burn efficiency compared with 27%[14] in the best gasoline engines. A down-side of the Diesel engine is that better filters are required to reduce the presence in the exhaust gases of fine soot particulates called diesel particulate matter. Manufacturers are now starting to fit[when?] diesel particulate filters filters to remove the soot. Many diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modifications on 100% biodiesel and combinations of other organic oils.
Gasoline
Main article: Petrol engine
2007 Mark II (BMW) Mini Cooper
Gasoline engines have the advantage over diesel in being lighter and able to work at higher rotational speeds and they are the usual choice for fitting in high-performance sports cars. Continuous development of gasoline engines for over a hundred years has produced improvements in efficiency and reduced pollution. The carburetor was used on nearly all road car engines until the 1980s but it was long realised better control of the fuel/air mixture could be achieved with fuel injection. Indirect fuel injection was first used in aircraft engines from 1909, in racing car engines from the 1930s, and road cars from the late 1950s.[14] Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) is now starting to appear in production vehicles such as the 2007 (Mark II) BMW Mini. Exhaust gases are also cleaned up by fitting a catalytic converter into the exhaust system. Clean air legislation in many of the car industries most important markets has made both catalysts and fuel injection virtually universal fittings. Most modern gasoline engines also are capable of running with up to 15% ethanol mixed into the gasoline - older vehicles may have seals and hoses that can be harmed by ethanol. With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. 100% ethanol is used in some parts of the world (such as Brazil), but vehicles must be started on pure gasoline and switched over to ethanol once the engine is running. Most gasoline engined cars can also run on LPG with the addition of an LPG tank for fuel storage and carburettor modifications to add an LPG mixer. LPG produces fewer toxic emissions and is a popular fuel for fork-lift trucks that have to operate inside buildings.
The hydrogen powered FCHV (Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle) was developed by Toyota in 2005
Biofuels
Main articles: Biofuel, Ethanol fuel, and biogasoline
Ethanol, other alcohol fuels (biobutanol) and biogasoline have widespread use an automotive fuel. Most alcohols have less energy per liter than gasoline and are usually blended with gasoline. Alcohols are used for a variety of reasons - to increase octane, to improve emissions, and as an alternative to petroleum based fuel, since they can be made from agricultural crops. Brazil's ethanol program provides about 20% of the nation's automotive fuel needs, as a result of the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country, 3 million cars that operate on pure ethanol, and 6 million dual or flexible-fuel vehicles sold since 2003.[15] that run on any mix of ethanol and gasoline. The commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, have allowed sugarcane based ethanol fuel to achieve a 50% market share of the gasoline market by April 2008.[16][17][18]
Electric
Main articles: Battery electric vehicle, Hybrid vehicle, and Plug-in hybrid
The Henney Kilowatt, the first modern (transistor-controlled) electric car.
2007 Tesla electric powered Roadster
Tata/MDI OneCAT Air Car
A CNG powered high-floor Neoplan AN440A, run on Compressed Natural Gas
The first electric cars were built around 1832, well before internal combustion powered cars appeared.[19] For a period of time electrics were considered superior due to the silent nature of electric motors compared to the very loud noise of the gasoline engine. This advantage was removed with Hiram Percy Maxim's invention of the muffler in 1897. Thereafter internal combustion powered cars had two critical advantages: 1) long range and 2) high specific energy (far lower weight of petrol fuel versus weight of batteries). The building of battery electric vehicles that could rival internal combustion models had to wait for the introduction of modern semiconductor controls and improved batteries. Because they can deliver a high torque at low revolutions electric cars do not require such a complex drive train and transmission as internal combustion powered cars. Some post-2000 electric car designs such as the Venturi Fétish are able to accelerate from 0-60 mph (96 km/h) in 4.0 seconds with a top speed around 130 mph (210 km/h). Others have a range of 250 miles (400 km) on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) highway cycle requiring 3-1/2 hours to completely charge.[20] Equivalent fuel efficiency to internal combustion is not well defined but some press reports give it at around 135 miles per US gallon (1.74 L/100 km, 162 mpg-imp).
Steam
Main article: steam car
Steam power, usually using an oil- or gas-heated boiler, was also in use until the 1930s but had the major disadvantage of being unable to power the car until boiler pressure was available (although the newer models could achieve this in well under a minute). It has the advantage of being able to produce very low emissions as the combustion process can be carefully controlled. Its disadvantages include poor heat efficiency and extensive requirements for electric auxiliaries.[21]
Air
Main article: Compressed-air car
A compressed air car is an alternative fuel car that uses a motor powered by compressed air. The car can be powered solely by air, or by air combined (as in a hybrid electric vehicle) with gasoline/diesel/ethanol or electric plant and regenerative braking. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it to drive pistons with hot expanding gases; compressed air cars use the expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. Several prototypes are available already and scheduled for worldwide sale by the end of 2008. Companies releasing this type of car include Tata Motors and Motor Development International (MDI).
Gas turbine
In the 1950s there was a brief interest in using gas turbine engines and several makers including Rover and Chrysler produced prototypes. In spite of the power units being very compact, high fuel consumption, severe delay in throttle response, and lack of engine braking meant no cars reached production.
Rotary (Wankel) engines
Rotary Wankel engines were introduced into road cars by NSU with the Ro 80 and later were seen in the Citroën GS Birotor and several Mazda models. In spite of their impressive smoothness, poor reliability and fuel economy led to them largely disappearing. Mazda, beginning with the R100 then RX-2, has continued research on these engines, overcoming most of the earlier problems with the RX-7 and RX-8.
Rocket and jet cars
A rocket car holds the record in drag racing. However, the fastest of those cars are used to set the Land Speed Record, and are propelled by propulsive jets emitted from rocket, turbojet, or more recently and most successfully turbofan engines. The ThrustSSC car using two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans with reheat was able to exceed the speed of sound at ground level in 1997.
Safety
Main articles: Car safety and Automobile accident
Result of a serious automobile accident.
There are three main statistics to which automobile safety can be compared:[22]
Deaths per
billion journeys
Bus: 4.3
Rail: 20
Van: 20
Car: 40
Foot: 40
Water: 90
Air: 117
Bicycle: 170
Motorcycle: 1640
Deaths per
billion hours
Bus: 11.1
Rail: 30
Air: 30.8
Water: 50
Van: 60
Car: 130
Foot: 220
Bicycle: 550
Motorcycle: 4840
Deaths per
billion kilometres
Air: 0.05
Bus: 0.4
Rail: 0.6
Van: 1.2
Water: 2.6
Car: 3.1
Bicycle: 44.6
Foot: 54.2
Motorcycle: 108.9
While road traffic injuries represent the leading cause in worldwide injury-related deaths,[23] their popularity undermines this statistic.
Tip Penjagaan Kereta
Written on 5:19 PM by Amilrash
Tip-tip
Perhatikan tayar cukup angin. Tiada benda pelik melekat di bahagian tayar atau mana-mana bahagian kereta. Jika tayar anda selalu kehilangan tekanan angin bermakna kemungkinan besar paku telah tertembus pada tayar anda. Kenapa tayar kereta tidak pancit terus dan hanya hilang angin sedikit demi sedikit? Kerana tayar kereta menggunakan teknologi tubeless iaitu tanpa tiub dan angin akan masih berada di dalam tayar walaupun tertusuk paku. Selalunya paku berada di bahagian tepi jalan yang ditabur oleh TAUKEY TIUB yang target untuk memancitkan tayar penunggang motor. Oleh itu, jika memandu, janganlah terlalu ke kiri. Lagipun lorong di kiri adalah untuk penunggang motor, basikal dan pejalan kaki.
Sebelum memulakan perjalanan, hidupkan enjin dan tunggu sehingga injin melahu pada kadar RPM yang normal kemudian baru jalan. Sebelum hidupkan injin, onkan suis dan tunggu apa-apa lampu yang sepatutnya padam sebelum injin hidup. Dengan cara ini, enjin anda akan lebih berkuasa di jalan dan menjimatkan minyak serta tahan lebih lama.
Seminggu sekali kalau boleh, periksa lampu brek ketiga dan semua lampu brek. Pastikan ia berfungsi. Buka bonet injin, buka penutup bateri dan periksa air bateri. Pastikan ianya berada pada aras antara minimum dan maksimum. Buka penutup minyak brek (Botol besar dekat body di hadapan pemandu dalam bonet injin), pastikan minyaknya mencukupi. Cari jarum pemeriksa minyak enjin. Untuk kancil ia ada di bahagian depan dekat belt yang bergerak kalau injin hidup (pemegang warna kuning). Cabut dan lapkan minyak di jarum tersebut dan kemudian masukkan kembali jarum tu. Bilang sampai lima dan cabut kembali. Minyak mesti berada pada aras di antara minimum dan maksimum. Kalau bawah daripada minimum, masukkan sedikit minyak injin sehingga ke paras yang saya katakan tadi. Untuk kereta auto, cari jarum yang lebih kurang sama bentuknya tapi berada di sebelah yang bertentangan dengan jarum yang pertama (untuk periksa minyak gear box). Lakukan perkara yang sama seperti yang pertama.
Sebulan sekali, pergi ke pam minyak dan periksa tekanan tayar. Tekanan yang sesuai ada di catatkan di bahagian dalam tiang B (tiang antara pintu depan dan belakang) sebelah pemandu. Periksa juga tekanan tayar simpanan. Setiap 3 bulan (kalau setiap hari guna kereta untuk ke tempat kerja, pergi ke kedai tayar dan rotate tayar mengikut aturan yang sesuai. Jika tayar anda sudah hampir botak, pergi ke kedai tayar dan tukar secepat mungkin. Tayar depan lebih penting kerana kawalan kereta bergantung padanya. Untuk periksa harga tayar, boleh tengok2 di laman web lelong.com.my atau pergi je kedai tayar buat survey dulu baru tukar. Jangan sampai kena tipu beli tayar celup.
Setiap 5,000 km pergi ke workshop, tukar minyak injin (jika gunakan minyak biasa), tukar penapis minyak (oil filter) setiap 2 kali tukar minyak injin dan tukar plag setiap 3 kali tukar minyak injin. Kalau kereta model lama (kancil 660 sehingga 1996) yang pakai “Petnam” atau contact point, suruh meknaik cuci contact point setiap 3 kali tukar minyak injin dan tukar setiap 9 kali tukar minyak injin. Kalau nak buat sendiri pun boleh. Pergi kedai hardware, beli strap wrench atau cup wrench untuk buka oil filter kereta anda. Beli oil filter dalam RM10, minyak hitam shell helix sudah memadai untuk prestasi yang baik dengan harga RM43 untuk botol 3 liter bagi kenderaan bersaiz kecil seperti kancil dan 4 liter untuk kereta bersaiz besar.
Digalakkan setiap bulan anda hantar kereta anda ke kedai cuci kereta atau car wash. Ini penting bagi memastikan semua tempat dalam kereta anda bersih dan kereta anda lambat nampak buruk ditelan masa.
Sayangi kereta anda, jaga kereta anda..
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